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Systems and Power FAQs

Every application ends up as a system: a box PC, a server, a vehicle computer or a robot controller, and something has to power it. These FAQs explain types of industrial computers and servers, power supplies, UPS and DC input, and positioning and sensing for mobile machines.

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SERVERS · FUNDAMENTALS

What Is a Server?

A server is a computer, or a program running on one, that provides data, applications or services to other devices over a network. Server hardware is built to run around the clock, with error-correcting memory, redundant power and drives, and remote management, and comes in tower, rack, blade and edge form factors.

6 MIN

EDGE COMPUTING · INFRASTRUCTURE

What Is an Edge Data Centre?

An edge data centre (edge data center in US usage) is a small data centre placed close to the people and machines it serves. It processes and stores data locally rather than in a distant cloud region, which cuts latency and backhaul traffic. It ranges from a single cabinet to a modular room or a regional colocation site.

6 MIN

POWER · ADAPTERS AND SUPPLIES

What Is an AC Adapter?

An AC adapter is an external power supply that converts mains AC, typically 100 to 240 V, into the low-voltage DC a device runs on, such as 12 V or 19 V. It is also called a power brick or wall adapter. The device needs the right voltage, polarity and connector, and at least the current it draws.

6 MIN

COMPUTING · PROFESSIONAL SYSTEMS

What Is a Workstation?

A workstation is a high-performance computer built for demanding professional work such as CAD, simulation, video and AI development. Compared with a standard desktop it typically has a many-core processor, ECC memory, a professional GPU with certified drivers and more room for expansion, and it is built to run heavy loads for hours.

6 MIN

INDUSTRIAL I/O · POWER

What Is Galvanic Isolation?

Galvanic isolation separates two circuits so that no current can flow directly between them, while power or data still passes across the gap by light, a magnetic field or an electric field. It breaks ground loops, blocks damaging voltages and noise, and protects people and equipment wherever circuits at different potentials have to connect.

6 MIN

SERVERS · GPU SYSTEM DESIGN

What Is NVIDIA MGX?

NVIDIA MGX is a modular reference architecture for building accelerated servers. NVIDIA defines standard building blocks for the chassis, GPUs, CPUs, networking, power and cooling, and server makers combine them into their own systems, from 1U and 2U GPU servers to liquid-cooled racks, with x86 or Arm processors.

6 MIN

ENCLOSURES · NEMA RATINGS

What Is NEMA 4X?

NEMA 4X is an enclosure type from the NEMA 250 standard for indoor or outdoor equipment. Like NEMA 4, it protects against windblown dust and rain, splashing and hose-directed water, and ice forming on the outside. The X adds corrosion resistance, which is why NEMA 4X enclosures are usually stainless steel, aluminium or plastic.

8 MIN

ENCLOSURES · INGRESS PROTECTION

What Is IP54?

IP54 is an ingress protection rating from IEC 60529. The 5 means the enclosure is dust protected: some dust can enter, but not enough to affect operation. The 4 means it resists water splashed from any direction. IP54 is splash resistant, not waterproof, so it is not tested against water jets, hosing or immersion.

6 MIN

DISPLAYS · MOUNTING

What Are VESA Mount Sizes?

VESA mount sizes are standard screw-hole patterns on the back of a monitor, TV or panel PC, given in millimetres between hole centres, horizontal first. The common sizes are 75 × 75 and 100 × 100 for small and mid-size screens, 200 × 200 for larger ones, and 400 × 400 and up for big displays.

6 MIN

SYSTEMS · LIFECYCLE

How Long Do Computers Last?

Most consumer laptops last around three to five years and desktops around five to eight. Industrial and embedded computers typically stay in service for seven to ten years or more, because they use fanless cooling, industrial components and processors from long-life embedded roadmaps. Heat, workload, storage wear and software support decide the rest.

6 MIN

SYSTEMS · RACK MOUNTING

What Is a Rack Unit?

A rack unit (U or RU) is the standard measure of height for equipment in a 19 inch rack. One rack unit is 1.75 inches, or 44.45 mm, so a 2U server is 3.5 inches tall and a 4U server 7 inches. Racks are sized the same way: a 42U rack has 42U of mounting space.

8 MIN

STANDARDS · PRODUCT SAFETY

What Is IEC 62368-1?

IEC 62368-1 is the international safety standard for audio/video, information and communication technology equipment, including computers, monitors, network equipment and their power supplies. It replaced IEC 60950-1 and IEC 60065 with a hazard-based approach that classifies energy sources and specifies safeguards. It is adopted as EN 62368-1 in Europe and the UK and as UL 62368-1 in North America.

6 MIN

POWER · ENERGY STORAGE

What Is a Supercapacitor?

A supercapacitor, also called an ultracapacitor, is an energy storage device that holds charge electrostatically at the surface of porous carbon electrodes rather than through a chemical reaction. It charges and discharges in seconds, lasts hundreds of thousands of cycles and works from about −40 °C, but stores far less energy than a battery of the same size.

6 MIN

EMC · STANDARDS

What Is Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)?

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is unwanted electrical noise from one source that disturbs the working of another circuit or device. It travels along cables (conducted EMI) or through the air (radiated EMI), and comes from motors, switching power supplies, radio transmitters, lightning and static discharge. EMC standards limit how much a product emits and how much it must tolerate.

6 MIN

THERMAL DESIGN · COOLING

What Is a Heat Sink?

A heat sink is a block of metal, usually aluminium or copper, that draws heat away from a hot component such as a processor and releases it into the surrounding air. Fins give it a large surface area. A passive heat sink relies on natural airflow; an active one adds a fan to move more air over the fins.

6 MIN

STORAGE · MAINTENANCE

What Is Hot Swapping?

Hot swapping, or hot swap, means removing and replacing a component while the computer keeps running, with no shutdown or restart. A hot-swappable part, such as a drive in a front bay, a redundant power supply or a fan, is designed so it can be pulled and replaced live without damage or lost data.

6 MIN

EDGE COMPUTING · SERVERS

What Is an Edge Server?

An edge server is a server installed close to where data is created or used, such as a factory, depot, shop or cell site, instead of in a central data centre or the cloud. It processes data locally for low latency and lower bandwidth. In web delivery, the term also means a CDN server that caches content near users.

7 MIN

COMPUTING · CLIENT DEVICES

What Is a Zero Client?

A zero client is a stateless desktop device with no general-purpose operating system and no local user data. It connects straight to a virtual desktop or remote session on a server through one display protocol, such as PCoIP, Blast or HDX, then shows the screen and sends keyboard, mouse and USB input back.

6 MIN

PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT · MANUFACTURING

OEM vs ODM: What Is the Difference?

An OEM (original equipment manufacturer) sells a product under its own brand and owns its design, whether or not it builds the product itself. An ODM (original design manufacturer) designs and builds a product that other companies buy and sell under their own names. The difference comes down to who owns the design.

6 MIN

EDGE COMPUTING · ARCHITECTURE

Fog Computing vs Edge Computing: What Is the Difference?

Edge computing processes data on or right beside the device that creates it, such as a camera, machine or vehicle. Fog computing adds a layer between the edge and the cloud: local servers or gateways that collect data from many edge devices across a site, filter and analyse it, then pass only what matters to the cloud.

6 MIN

MARINE · AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS

What Is an Unmanned Surface Vehicle (USV)?

An unmanned surface vehicle (USV) is a boat that operates on the water with no crew on board. It is either driven remotely from a control station or navigates autonomously using onboard sensors and computers. Also called uncrewed surface vessels or sea drones, USVs carry out survey, inspection, environmental monitoring, security patrol and naval missions.

7 MIN

COMPUTING · CLIENT DEVICES

What Is a Thin Client?

A thin client is a small, low-power computer that runs applications from a central server instead of locally. It handles the screen, keyboard, mouse and network link, while the processing and data stay on the server or a virtual desktop, so the device itself stores little and is easy to manage.

6 MIN

SERVERS · FORM FACTORS

What Is a Rack Server?

A rack server is a server built in a flat, standard-width chassis that bolts into a 19-inch rack. Its height is given in multiples of the rack unit (U), where 1U is 44.45 mm, so 1U, 2U and 4U servers stack densely with shared power, cooling and cabling.

6 MIN

POWER · COMPUTER HARDWARE

What Is a Computer Power Supply (PSU)?

A computer power supply, or PSU (power supply unit), converts mains AC or a DC source into the regulated low-voltage DC rails a computer runs on, mainly 12 V, 5 V and 3.3 V. Desktops use an internal ATX supply; servers use redundant hot-swap supplies; industrial PCs often take a wide-range DC input directly.

6 MIN

MOUNTING · CONTROL CABINETS

What Is a DIN Rail?

A DIN rail is a standard metal rail used to mount electrical and control equipment inside cabinets. The most common type is the 35 mm top-hat rail defined in EN 60715. Circuit breakers, power supplies, PLCs, terminal blocks, network switches and compact industrial PCs clip onto it side by side, which keeps wiring tidy and makes parts quick to swap.

6 MIN

REFUSE COLLECTION · VEHICLES

What Is a Bin Lift?

A bin lift is the hydraulic mechanism at the back of a refuse collection vehicle that lifts a wheeled bin, tips it into the hopper and lowers it back to the ground. The crew positions each bin and works the controls, and cameras and sensors can help the lift meet the bin at the right height and distance.

6 MIN

MINING · AUTONOMY

What Is an Autonomous Haulage System?

An autonomous haulage system runs driverless haul trucks in a mine. Each truck uses positioning, radar, LiDAR and cameras to follow planned routes between loading and dumping points, while fleet management software assigns the work and staff in a control room supervise the fleet and step in when needed.

6 MIN

IN-VEHICLE · POWER

What Is Ignition Control on a Vehicle Computer?

Ignition control lets a vehicle computer follow the ignition key: it starts when the engine starts, and when the ignition is switched off it waits for a set delay and then shuts down cleanly. That protects the data on the computer and stops it draining the vehicle battery while parked.

6 MIN

ROBOTICS · HARDWARE

What Is a Robot Controller?

A robot controller is the computer that runs a robot: it reads sensors, makes decisions and commands the motors. Industrial arms use the manufacturer’s motion controller, while mobile robots and vision-guided systems increasingly use an edge AI computer as the robotics controller, running camera perception, planning and communication with drives over CAN or Ethernet.

6 MIN

ROBOTICS · STANDARDS

What Are the Cobot Safety Standards?

The main safety standards for collaborative robots are ISO 10218, which covers industrial robots in two parts (the robot itself, and its integration into a system), and ISO/TS 15066, which adds guidance on collaborative operation, including force and pressure limits for contact with the body. Every application also needs its own risk assessment.

6 MIN

ROBOTICS · AUTOMATION

What Is a Cobot?

A cobot (collaborative robot) is an industrial robot designed to work alongside people rather than behind safety fencing. Cobots limit their speed and force, sense contact, and are often programmed by guiding the arm by hand. They take on repetitive tasks such as picking, packing, machine tending and screwdriving while staff work nearby.

6 MIN

ROBOTICS · LOGISTICS

What Is AMR Fleet Management?

AMR fleet management is the software and computing that coordinates a group of autonomous mobile robots. It assigns tasks, plans routes, manages traffic at junctions and narrow aisles, schedules charging and connects the fleet to the warehouse management system, so robots work together efficiently instead of getting in each other’s way.

6 MIN

RAIL · VEHICLES

What Is a Hi-Rail Vehicle?

A hi-rail vehicle is a road vehicle, such as a pickup truck or van, fitted with retractable flanged guide wheels so it can drive on both roads and railway track. Railways use them for inspection and maintenance because crews can drive to an access point and go straight onto the line. In the UK they are usually called road-rail vehicles.

6 MIN

POSITIONING · COMPARISON

GNSS vs GPS: What Is the Difference?

GPS is one satellite navigation system, run by the United States. GNSS (global navigation satellite system) is the umbrella term for all of them, including GPS, Galileo, GLONASS and BeiDou. A multi-constellation GNSS receiver sees more satellites at once, which improves accuracy and keeps a fix where the view of the sky is limited.

6 MIN

SENSORS · POSITIONING

What Is an IMU?

An IMU (inertial measurement unit) is a sensor that measures acceleration and rotation, usually with accelerometers and gyroscopes on three axes, and often a magnetometer. From those readings a system can work out its orientation and movement. Combined with GNSS, an IMU keeps positioning accurate and continuous, even when satellite signals drop out.

6 MIN

IN-VEHICLE · MOUNTING

What Is a RAM Mount?

A RAM mount is a ball-and-socket mounting system, from RAM Mounts by National Products Inc., widely used to fix computers, tablets and displays in vehicles. A rubber-coated ball on the base and another on the device clamp into a double-socket arm, so the screen can be angled exactly and locked in place, while the rubber absorbs vibration.

6 MIN

IN-VEHICLE · FLEETS

What Is Fleet Telematics?

Fleet telematics combines GPS location, data from the vehicle itself and mobile connectivity to monitor and manage a fleet. It shows where every vehicle is, how it is being driven and how it is performing, so operators can plan routes, dispatch jobs, cut fuel use, schedule maintenance and keep records for compliance.

6 MIN

IN-VEHICLE · BASICS

What Is a Mobile Data Terminal?

A mobile data terminal (MDT) is a computer mounted in a vehicle cab that connects the driver to a control or dispatch centre. It shows jobs, routes and messages, captures forms and status updates, and usually adds GPS and cellular connectivity. Emergency services, taxis, recovery fleets, logistics and utilities use them every day.

8 MIN

POWER · OFF-GRID

How Do You Run a Computer on Solar Power?

To run a computer on solar power, you size a solar panel, charge controller and battery to cover the computer’s total daily energy use, with enough battery reserve for days of low sun. Choosing a low-power embedded PC with a wide DC input, such as 9 to 36 V, lets it run straight from a 12 or 24 V battery.

6 MIN

ENVIRONMENT · REMOTE MONITORING

What Is an Automatic Weather Station?

An automatic weather station measures weather conditions without staff on site. Sensors record temperature, humidity, wind, air pressure, rainfall and often solar radiation; a data logger or embedded computer processes the readings; and a cellular, radio or satellite link sends them to a central system. Most remote stations run on solar panels and batteries.

6 MIN

RETAIL · RECYCLING

What Is a Reverse Vending Machine?

A reverse vending machine (RVM) takes back empty drinks containers, such as plastic bottles, cans and glass, and gives the user a refund or reward. It identifies each container by its barcode and shape, checks it is eligible, then crushes, sorts and stores it. RVMs are the collection point for deposit return schemes.

6 MIN

MEDICAL · EQUIPMENT

What Is a Medical Cart?

A medical cart is a mobile workstation on castors that brings a computer, display and other equipment to the patient. Common types include computer workstations for records and medication, telemedicine carts with cameras for remote consultations, and endoscopy or imaging carts that capture, display and record video during procedures.

7 MIN

MEDICAL · POWER

What Is a Medical Grade Power Supply?

A medical grade power supply is approved to IEC 60601-1 for use in medical electrical equipment. Compared with a standard IT power supply, it has much lower leakage current and stronger isolation between mains and output, typically 2 MOPP, so it can be used safely in equipment that operates near or connects to patients.

7 MIN

SMART CITIES · EDGE COMPUTING

What Is a Smart City?

A smart city uses connected sensors, cameras, data and digital services to run its infrastructure and public services more efficiently. Common examples include adaptive traffic lights, smart parking, connected street lighting, real-time public transport information, environmental monitoring and public safety systems, with much of the data processed by edge computers close to where it is collected.

6 MIN

SMART PARKING · SENSORS

What Are Parking Occupancy Sensors?

Parking occupancy sensors detect whether a parking space is free or taken. The main types are ultrasonic sensors mounted above bays indoors, magnetic or radar sensors set into the ground outdoors, and cameras that use AI to monitor several bays at once. Their data feeds guidance signs, apps and car park management systems.

6 MIN

SMART PARKING · GUIDANCE

What Is a Parking Guidance System?

A parking guidance system directs drivers to free spaces. Sensors detect which bays or zones are occupied, and electronic signs at the entrance, on each level and at junctions show how many spaces are available and where. Bay-level systems add a red or green light above each space, so drivers can see an empty bay from a distance.

6 MIN

SMART PARKING · BASICS

What Is Smart Parking?

Smart parking uses sensors, cameras and software to track which parking spaces are free in real time and share that with drivers through signs and apps. It often adds automated entry and payment with ANPR, so drivers find a space faster, operators fill more of their car park, and less time is spent circling.

6 MIN

SMART PARKING · ACCESS AND PAYMENT

What Is a Car Park Management System?

A car park management system controls and monitors a car park: who can enter and leave, how long they stay, what they pay and how many spaces are free. Modern systems use ANPR cameras instead of tickets, with barriers, payment points, space counting, signs and a back office linked by edge computers at each entrance and exit.

6 MIN

SMART PARKING · ACCESS CONTROL

How Do Car Park Barriers Work?

A car park barrier is a motorised arm controlled by a barrier controller. Sensors such as inductive loops in the road detect a vehicle, an access check (a ticket, card, intercom or ANPR match) authorises it, and the controller raises the arm. Safety loops or sensors stop the arm closing until the vehicle has cleared.

6 MIN

MINING · AUTONOMY

What Is Autonomous Mining?

Autonomous mining uses driverless haul trucks, drills, loaders and dozers that operate without a person in the cab. The machines combine GNSS positioning, LiDAR, radar and cameras with onboard computers and a site control system, so they can haul, drill and load around the clock while keeping people out of hazardous areas.

6 MIN

SENSORS · PERCEPTION

LiDAR vs Camera: What Is the Difference?

LiDAR measures distance directly with laser pulses, giving accurate 3D depth in any light. A camera captures colour, texture and fine detail at low cost, but needs light and has to work out depth indirectly, through stereo vision or AI. Many autonomous machines use both, combining the camera’s detail with LiDAR’s depth.

6 MIN

SENSORS · PERCEPTION

What Is LiDAR?

LiDAR (light detection and ranging) is a sensor that measures distance by firing pulses of laser light and timing how long each one takes to bounce back. Repeating this many thousands of times a second builds a 3D point cloud of the surroundings, which machines use to see shapes, distances and movement in real time.

6 MIN

AGRICULTURE · BASICS

What Is Precision Agriculture?

Precision agriculture is a way of farming that uses GPS, sensors, cameras and data to manage each part of a field according to what it needs, rather than treating the whole field the same. Water, fertiliser, seed and chemicals go where they will do the most good, which raises yields and cuts waste.

6 MIN

AUTONOMY · LOGISTICS

What Is an AGV?

An AGV (automated guided vehicle) is a driverless vehicle that moves materials around factories and warehouses along predefined routes, guided by wires, magnetic tape, lasers or floor markers. Common types include tow tractors, load carriers, automated forklifts and pallet jacks. AGVs take repetitive transport jobs off people and repeat the same route reliably, shift after shift.

6 MIN

AUTONOMY · LOGISTICS

AGV vs AMR: What Is the Difference?

An AGV (automated guided vehicle) follows fixed routes marked by magnetic tape, wires, reflectors or floor codes, and stops when something blocks its path. An AMR (autonomous mobile robot) builds a map of its surroundings with sensors and plans its own route, steering around people and obstacles. AGVs suit stable, repetitive routes; AMRs suit changing layouts.

6 MIN

AUTONOMY · POSITIONING

What Is RTK GPS?

RTK (Real-Time Kinematic) GPS is a satellite positioning technique that uses correction data from a nearby base station or correction network to improve accuracy from a few metres to around one to two centimetres. It is used to guide autonomous tractors, drones, construction machines and survey equipment.

6 MIN

AUTONOMY · PERCEPTION

What Is Sensor Fusion?

Sensor fusion is combining data from several sensors, such as cameras, LiDAR, radar, IMUs and GNSS, into one more accurate and reliable picture than any single sensor can give. Autonomous vehicles, robots and drones use it to understand their surroundings and their own position.

6 MIN

DEFENCE · DESIGN

What Is SWaP-C?

SWaP-C stands for size, weight, power and cost. It is the design trade-off used in defence and aerospace to judge equipment for platforms with tight limits, such as drones and vehicles, where every gram, watt and pound spent reduces endurance, payload or budget.

6 MIN

EDGE AI · UAV AND DRONES

What Is a Drone Companion Computer?

A drone companion computer is a small AI computer that runs alongside the flight controller on a UAV. The flight controller flies the aircraft; the companion computer runs computer vision and AI to give the drone autonomy, such as obstacle avoidance, navigation and object detection. NVIDIA Jetson is a common choice for its AI performance per gram and per watt.

6 MIN

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